iReasearch学术科研网

袁周敏推荐： 本文展示了如何在缜密的分析框架下将后续口述报告应用于长期跟踪研究，并证明了这一做法可充分揭示第二语言语用能力发展的影响因素。

摘要：This study investigates the relationships between test takers' metacognitive and cognitive strategy use through a questionnaire and their test performance on an English as a Foreign Language reading test. A total of 593 Chinese college test takers responded to a 38-item metacognitive and cognitive strategy questionnaire and a 50-item reading test. The data were randomly split into two samples (N = 296 and N = 297). Based on relevant literature, three models (i.e., unitary, higher order, and correlated) of strategy use and test performance were hypothesized and tested to identify the baseline model. Further, cross-validation analyses were conducted. The results supported the invariance of factor loadings, measurement error variances, structural regression coefficients, and factor variances for the unitary model. It was found that college test takers' strategy use affected their lexico-grammatical reading ability significantly. Findings from this study provide empirical and validating evidence for Bachman and Palmer's (2010) model of strategic competence. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This commentary discusses some methodological innovations and challenges in testing two cognitive models of task-based instruction and learning: Robinson's Cognition Hypothesis (2001) and Skehan's Trade-Off Hypothesis (1998). My focus, in view of these models' key constructs, is the extent to which current methodological approaches are adequate to address the theoretical questions posed. I argue that there is a need for more extensive use of methods that can provide independent evidence of construct validity for the independent variables and causal processes invoked by the frameworks. By exploring some innovative task-based research and drawing on examples from other fields, I offer suggestions for improving our practices in future research. Adapted from the source document

摘要：The present study explores the use of conjunctions in simple versus complex argumentative tasks performed by second language (L2) learners as a specific measure for the amount of reasoning involved in task performance. The Cognition Hypothesis (Robinson, 2005) states that an increase in cognitive task complexity promotes improvements in L2 performance. This effect should become particularly visible when task-specific performance measures are used (Robinson & Gilabert, 2007). This article evaluates these claims by investigating the oral performance of 64 L2 learners on cognitively simple, as compared with cognitively complex, oral argumentative reasoning tasks. The analysis focuses first on the overall frequency and occurrence of conjunctions. Next, 5 conjunctions that are considered to be highly task-relevant are examined more closely. Results are discussed in light of the speech production of 44 native speakers who performed the same tasks under the same conditions. The discussion addresses implications of the findings for the cognitive approach to task-based L2 research in light of Robinson's (2005) Cognition Hypothesis. From the standpoint of research methodology it highlights the benefits of native speaker data as a baseline for comparison.

摘要：Researchers of high-stakes, subjectively scored writing assessments have done much work to better understand the process that raters go through in applying a rating scale to a language performance to arrive at a score. However, there is still unexplained, systematic variability in rater scoring that resists rater training (see Hoyt & Kerns, 1999; McNamara, 1996; Weigle, 2002; Weir, 2005). The consideration of individual differences in rater cognition may explain some of this rater variability. This mixed-method exploratory case study (Yin, 2009) examined rater decision making in a high-stakes writing assessment for preservice teachers in Quebec, Canada, focussing on individual differences in decision-making style, or 'stylistic differences in cognitive style that could affect decision-making' (Thunholm, 2004). The General Decision Making Style Inventory questionnaire (Scott & Bruce, 1995) was administered to six raters of a high-stakes writing exam in Quebec, and information on the following rater behaviours was also collected for their potential for providing additional information on individual decision-making style (DMS): (a) the frequency at which a rater decides to defer his or her score, (b) the underuse of failing score levels, and (c) the comments provided by raters during the exam rating about their decisions (collected through 'write-aloud' protocols; Gigerenzer & Hoffrage, 1995). The relative merits of each of these sources of data are discussed in terms of their potential for tapping into the construct of rater DMS. Although score effects of DMS have yet to be established, it is concluded that despite the exploratory nature of this study, there is potential for the consideration of individual sociocognitive differences in accounting for some rater variability in scoring. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This research investigated the relation between rater cognition and rater behavior, focusing on differential severity/leniency regarding criteria. Participants comprised a sample of 18 raters examined in a previous rater cognition study (Eckes, 2008). These raters, who were known to differ widely in their perceptions of criterion importance, provided ratings of live examinee writing performance. Based on these ratings, criterion-related bias measures were estimated using many-facet Rasch measurement. A cluster analysis of bias measures yielded four operational rater types. Each type was characterized by a distinct pattern of differentially severe or lenient ratings on particular criteria. The observed bias patterns were related to differential perceptions of criterion importance: Criteria perceived as highly important were more closely associated with severe ratings, and criteria perceived as less important were more closely associated with lenient ratings. Implications of the demonstrated link between rater cognition and rater behavior for future research into the nature of rater bias are discussed. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Think-aloud protocols (TAPs) are frequently used in research on essay rating processes. However, there are very few empirical studies of the completeness of TAP data and the effects of this technique on rater performance (i.e., rating processes and outcomes). This study aims to start to address this research gap. As part of a larger study on rater decision-making behaviors, 11 novice and 14 experienced raters rated, both analytically and holistically, a sample of ESL essays silently and while thinking aloud. The raters were then interviewed about their perceptions of thinking aloud and its effects. Essay scores were submitted to FACETS analyses, while TAP and interview data were analyzed qualitatively. Score and qualitative data analyses provided evidence and explanations concerning the veridicality and reactivity of TAPs across rater groups (novice vs. experienced) and rating scales (holistic vs. analytic). The paper concludes with several theoretical and methodological implications and questions for future studies using TAPs to build models of and compare essay rating processes across individuals, groups and contexts. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Ltd., copyright holder.]

摘要：The purpose of this study was to explore whether the results of Tree Based Regression (TBR) analyses, informed by a validated cognitive model, would enhance the interpretation of item difficulties in terms of the cognitive processes involved in answering the reading items included in two forms of the Michigan English Language Assessment Battery (MELAB). A cognitive model was first generated to explain the performance of the MELAB reading items, and then validated by expert judgment and student verbal protocols. Next, the validated model was used in the TBR analyses to obtain the final trees for each form. Finally, the cognitive processes (i.e., reading processes and testing strategies) measured by each item were traced back for each item in the terminal nodes of each tree. The results revealed that TBR, informed by a supportable cognitive theory, appears to be a promising addition to statistical item analysis that can be effectively used to enhance the interpretation of item analyses results. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Ltd., copyright holder.]

摘要：Following on from my state-of-the-art article on Language Awareness and language learning (Svalberg 2007), in this paper I will discuss specific research tasks which are centrally concerned with different aspects of language awareness (LA): 'explicit knowledge about language, and conscious perception and sensitivity in language learning, language teaching and language use'. The overall argument is that research is needed into how LA is constructed by language learners and teachers through engagement with language (Svalberg 2007; 2009). I will sometimes refer specifically to awareness of grammar (form-meaning) but hope the paper will stimulate ideas for research into other LA aspects of language learning and teaching. The absence of other issues and areas (such as LA and multilingualism, intercultural LA, critical LA, LA and language policy) is a function of the personal nature of the paper and the limitations of space. Adapted from the source document

摘要：There has always been a common-sense view that the number of languages that children learn, whether through natural exposure or educational intervention, has consequences for their development. The assumption was that these consequences were potentially damaging. Even now, after approximately 50 years of research on the topic, parents remain concerned about their children's development when it includes a bilingual experience. It is now clear that although parents were correct that speaking more than one language has consequences, the assumption about the nature of these consequences is not: the outcome of the experience is in fact the opposite of what many early researchers claimed and what many contemporary parents intuitively believe. In contrast to early warnings about negative consequences, bilingualism turns out to be an experience that benefits many aspects of children's development. Although there are documented delays in acquiring some formal aspects of each language, such as vocabulary (Bialystok 2010), bilingualism has either no effect (intelligence) or positive effects (metalinguistic awareness, cognitive development) on development. Adapted from the source document

摘要：As is the case in traditional second language (L2) acquisition research, a major question in the field of L2 real-time sentence processing is the extent to which L2 learners process the input like native speakers. Where differences are observed, the underlying causes could be the influence of the learner's first language and/or differences (fundamental or not) in the use of processing strategies between learners and native speakers. Another factor that may account for L1-L2 differences, perhaps in combination with others, is individual variability in general levels of proficiency or in learners' general cognitive capacities, such as working memory and processing speed. However, systematic research into the effects of such individual differences on L2 real-time sentence processing has yet to be done because researchers in the main attempt to control for individual differences in general cognitive capacities rather than to investigate them in their own right: nevertheless, a review of the current work on L2 sentence and discourse processing raises some interesting findings. An overview of this research is presented in this paper, highlighting what appear to be the circumstances under which individual differences in factors such as working memory capacity and proficiency do or do not affect L2 sentence processing. Taken together, the data suggest that it is only under certain experimental circumstances-specifically, when participants are asked to perform a metalinguistic task directing their attention to the manipulation at the same time as comprehending the input-that individual differences in such factors as insufficient L2 proficiency and/or cognitive processing limitations, like speed and working memory influence L2 learners' real-time processing of the target input. Under these circumstances, L2 learners of for instance, a higher working memory capacity or greater proficiency are more likely to process the input like native speakers. Otherwise, learners appear to shallow process the input, irrespective of individual variability. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This study modeled vocabulary trajectories in 91 English language learners (ELLs) with Punjabi, Tamil, or Portuguese home languages, and 50 English monolinguals (EL1) from Grades 1 to 6. The concurrent and longitudinal relationships between phonological awareness and phonological short-term memory and vocabulary were examined. ELLs underperformed EL1s on vocabulary across all grades. Although vocabulary grew faster in ELLs than in EL1s in the primary grades, they did not close the gap after 6 years of English schooling. Mutual facilitation was found between phonological awareness, English-like nonwords, and vocabulary. A unidirectional relationship was found between Hebrew-like nonwords and vocabulary suggesting that the relationship between phonological short-term memory and vocabulary can be more accurately captured when using nonwords based on a remote, unfamiliar language. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Psychological research has emphasized the importance of narrative for a person's sense of self. Building a coherent narrative of past events is one objective of psychotherapy. However, in guided self-help therapy the patient has to develop this narrative autonomously. Identifying patients' narrative skills in relation to psychological distress could provide useful information about their suitability for self-help. The aim of this study was to explore whether the syntactic integration of clauses into narrative in texts written by prospective psychotherapy patients was related to mild to moderate psychological distress. Cross-clausal syntax of texts by 97 people who had contacted a primary care mental health service was analyzed. Severity of symptoms associated with mental health difficulties was assessed by a standardized scale (Clinical Outcomes in Routine Evaluation outcome measure). Cross-clausal syntactic integration was negatively correlated with the severity of symptoms. A multiple regression analysis confirmed that the use of simple sentences, finite complement clauses, and coordinated clauses was associated with symptoms (R2 = .26). The results suggest that the analysis of cross-clausal syntax can provide information on patients' narrative skills in relation to distressing events and can therefore provide additional information to support treatment decisions. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Motivated by cognitive-interactionist frameworks for task-based learning, this study explored whether task complexity affects the extent to which learners focus on form-meaning connections during task-based work in a classroom setting, and whether this relationship is modulated by three individual difference factors -- linguistic self-confidence, anxiety, and self-perceived communicative competence. 43 ESL learners from six intact classes worked in self-selected groups during their normal English classes. Each group performed two versions of the same argumentative task -- a simple and a complex version. The topics of the discussions were comparable, and the sequence of the tasks was counterbalanced. Twenty-three hours of audio- and videotaped data were collected and coded in terms of global and specific measures of speech production and various interactional features hypothesized to facilitate attention to L2 constructions. Self-report questionnaires were employed to determine the mediating effects of the individual difference variables. Quantitative analyses revealed the following significant trends: When task complexity was increased, participants demonstrated lower syntactic complexity but greater accuracy and lexical diversity. In addition, the more complex task proved more effective in inducing the use of specific, developmentally advanced constructions and in promoting interaction-driven language learning opportunities. However, only slight significant effects were observed for individual differences. Adapted from the source document

摘要：The present study investigated the impact of critical discourse analysis (CDA) on TEFL students' critical thinking (CT) ability in Reading Journalistic Texts classes. In so doing, the study utilized an experimental design with 24 participants in the control group and 29 participants in the experimental group. The results of a pretest indicated that the participants of the two groups were homogenous with regard to their proficiency level as well as their critical thinking ability. The participants in the experimental group were instructed to critically analyze teacher-distributed articles and devise follow-up presentations based on CDA. The results of the posttest indicated that CDA has a positive and significant influence on learners' critical thinking ability. CDA was also found to have the highest impact on two components of CT, interpretation and recognizing unstated assumption. The discussion and conclusions of the research are further presented with reference to the earlier findings. [Copyright Elsevier Ltd.]

摘要：This paper aims at contributing to a fuller understanding of the nature and potential dynamism of self-concept in the foreign language learning domain. Data were generated in a single, three-year longitudinal case study using journals and in-depth interviews. The data were then analysed using a Grounded Theory approach in which the analysis attempted to remain close to the data without imposing any preconceived frameworks on them. The findings illustrate how self-concept is perhaps best conceived of as a complex, multilayered, multidimensional network of interrelated self-beliefs. It was shown how self-beliefs can be differently situational in nature and a learner can hold seemingly contradictory self-beliefs. In terms of dynamism, the findings show how this learner's self-beliefs can at once be dynamic and also relatively stable, depending on the types of beliefs and forms of change investigated. The findings are discussed in light of complexity thinking and the potential of conceptualising and researching beliefs, especially self-beliefs, from such a perspective are considered. The article ends by outlining some of the challenges facing future research. [Copyright Elsevier Ltd.]

摘要：Based on qualitative data, the current study explored how the knowledge and beliefs of two EFL professionals shaped their corrective feedback practices. The two teachers teaching in Japan had in common two main agendas that they kept in mind as they provided or opted not to provide corrective feedback. They aimed to teach the language and to instill values-such as confidence, independence, and the ability to communicate reasonably well-that they felt were undervalued in the specific cultural context in which they taught. The present study highlights the need to expand the scope of corrective feedback research, introducing social, cultural, personal, and experiential factors that have been hitherto strictly excluded from research designs, and incorporating all goals that teachers are trying to achieve as they error correct. It also suggests that the inclusion of teachers' perceived classroom reality-how teachers conceptualize corrective feedback and how they learn and practice it on a daily basis-in theory construction may lead to new research programs and eventually contribute to a deeper understanding of second language learning and teaching processes. [Copyright Elsevier Ltd.]

摘要：This article aims to fill a gap in current studies on the semantics of branding. Through the analysis of a number of well-known international brand names, we provide ample evidence supporting the claim that a finite set of cognitive operations, such as those of domain reduction and expansion, mitigation, and strengthening, among others, can account for the drawing of inferences on the basis of the cue provided by the brand name. Such conceptual mechanisms are often randomly and unconsciously used in the process of building a new brand name. Nevertheless, this article argues that their systematic use results in (i) an increase in the degree of suggestiveness and semantic richness of the brand name, (ii) a lower risk of generating negative associations and connotations, and (iii) higher cognitive economy in the interpretation of brand names on the part of the potential consumer. In doing so, these cognitive operations arise as powerful tools for the task of creating safe and successful brand names. Adapted from the source document